Producing approximately 23 billion pairs of shoes each year, the global footwear industry is marred by significant environmental and ethical challenges. Despite the industry’s substantial output, only about 5% of shoes are recycled, leaving the majority to exacerbate landfill issues globally. Although not as prominently discussed as fast fashion garment production, the environmental footprint of footwear manufacturing is equally concerning. Production processes often involve toxic chemicals, extensive water use, and high dependency on fossil fuels. Additionally, factories are typically situated in developing countries to take advantage of cheap labour and lenient environmental regulations, contributing to a significant carbon footprint—1.4% of global greenhouse gas emissions, narrowly behind the aviation industry.
Lifecycle and Environmental Footprint of Shoes
Analyzing the lifecycle of footwear from material sourcing through manufacturing to distribution, use, and disposal, reveals the extensive impacts of shoe consumption. The extraction and processing of materials are particularly emission-intensive, dominating a shoe’s environmental footprint. A typical pair of shoes may contain up to 40 different materials, including rubber, textiles, leather, and synthetics, each bringing specific environmental and ethical challenges. For example, rubber plantations contribute to deforestation and elevate carbon emissions, while leather production, associated with cattle farming, disproportionately increases methane emissions. Additionally, materials like cotton and polyester require significant water and pesticides, deteriorating soil and water quality. Meanwhile, synthetic fibres, made from petrochemicals, are energy-intensive and add to microplastic pollution.
Exposed: The Journey of ‘Recycled’ Shoes to an Indonesian Flea Market. Promised to be recycled in Singapore through a program backed by Dow, these shoes ended up in an Indonesian flea market months later.
The Shoe Industry at a Crossroads: The Double-Edged Sword of Empowerment and Exploitation
Footwear like high heels, running shoes, and trendy sneakers often symbolise personal empowerment, confidence, and style. For many globally, these shoes are not just about fashion but also about making a personal statement. Women may view high heels as a tool for asserting authority and presence in professional and social settings, aligning with feminist ideals that champion choice and empowerment. For men and teenage boys, the allure of the latest sneaker designs often represents a canvas of self-expression and a coveted status symbol, while children delight in shoes that feature their favourite colours or characters, turning a necessity into a source of happiness. This spectrum of footwear reflects a liberal feminist perspective that celebrates personal fashion choices as empowering acts. But is choosing which pair of shoes to wear truly empowering when the backdrop is far less glamorous?
The footwear production landscape starkly contrasts with its marketed image — often characterised by exploitation and severe labour conditions in factories across developing nations. While the workers in these factories are predominantly women , enduring gruelling hours and exposure to harmful chemicals for minimal pay, some are teenage boys, and even children – many of whom are victims of forced labour. This juxtaposition between the empowerment symbolised by footwear and the exploitation involved in its production is a critical juncture in analysing the everyday international political economy, where the trivial microeconomic decisions of consumers are intertwined with broader macroeconomic phenomena like global trade practices, labour markets, and environmental degradation. This stark dissonance prompts both consumers and corporations to reflect on the broader implications of their everyday actions within a globally interconnected capitalist system. Furthermore, it also opens avenues for discussions by feminist political economists who critically explore how consumer choices perpetuate gender disparities and broader social inequalities.
From Style to Substance: The Many Faces of Footwear. This collection of illustrations, ranging from high heels to sneakers, showcases diverse styles and prompts us to consider the ethical and environmental implications of their production. It highlights the environmental impact and the stark realities faced by workers in the footwear industry. Credit: Stefan_Alfonso on istock
An exploration of feminist political economy is especially pertinent given the feminist movement’s longstanding emphasis on empowerment through personal choice, including fashion choices. This aligns with liberal feminist perspectives that champion individual expression and autonomy through consumer behaviours. However, a deeper issue emerges when the very symbols of empowerment for some women are produced under conditions that actively oppress others.
Transitioning to practical implications, it becomes evident that the enjoyment and empowerment derived from fashionable footwear in one part of the world starkly contrasts with the oppression perpetuated by its producers. Critical feminist analyses reveal how the exploitation and marginalisation of workers directly challenge the superficial empowerment marketed by brands worldwide. They argue that true empowerment cannot be achieved through consumer choices that are predicated on the exploitation of vulnerable populations.
Evidently, this situation highlights a broader challenge within feminist discourse: the imperative for intersectional and globally inclusive approaches. It challenges consumers and corporations to consider the wider implications of their choices. Can true empowerment be celebrated if it relies on the exploitation of less visible populations? Addressing these contradictions requires a concerted effort to ensure that empowerment through consumer choices does not inadvertently contribute to the disenfranchisement of others. This necessitates a re-evaluation of supply chain ethics, corporate responsibility, and consumer awareness, urging a shift towards more sustainable and equitable practices. Therefore, while shoes may symbolise personal and feminist empowerment, their production process raises critical questions about global responsibility and ethical consumption.
The Hidden Costs of Style: The Global Dynamics of the Shoe Industry
The escalating demand for the latest footwear styles, driven by consumer enthusiasm and strategic marketing campaigns, significantly impacts the global footwear market. This heightened interest not only shapes supply dynamics but also intensifies pressure on manufacturing hubs worldwide, fuelled by globalisation and mass-consumerism.
Globalization has revolutionised the shoe industry, facilitating the design, manufacture, and sale of footwear worldwide. This integration has broadened accessibility and variety but has also exacerbated economic disparities. Manufacturing hubs in Asia, notably China and Vietnam, attract global brands due to lower labour costs and lax environmental standards, overshadowing local industries that cannot compete. As affluent consumers in developed nations eagerly await new releases, their purchasing decisions directly impact the broader economic and labour dynamics within the international political economy. Where, the drive to minimise production costs often results in a ‘race to the bottom’ for labour conditions and environmental standards, marginalising local shoemaking traditions and reducing cultural diversity and economic sustainability in these communities.
Admittedly, to address these challenges, a re-evaluation of global trade practices is necessary to harmonise accessibility and variety with ethical labour and environmental sustainability. Despite the common belief that globalisation broadly benefits economies, the reality often shows a stark contrast, especially in the enforcement of labour rights and environmental protections within global trade agreements. These discrepancies highlight significant flaws in sectors like footwear production, emphasising the need for stronger regulatory frameworks and ethical commitments.
In the shoe industry, governance is often left to privatised entities that prioritise corporate profits over worker welfare and environmental protection, undermining the principles that trade agreements are supposed to support. This focus on profit can severely impact the economic status of workers, contributing not only to environmental degradation but also to the exacerbation of social inequalities. For instance, in regions like Eastern and Central Europe, women dominate the footwear manufacturing workforce but are subject to significantly lower wages and substandard working conditions compared to men. Evidently, this gender-based inequality underscores broader systemic issues within global supply chains, where the drive for profits frequently overshadows the equitable treatment of workers.
Additionally, there is a reliance on voluntary, corporate-led, schemes to improve and monitor working conditions which frequently fall short. Although intended to promote better labour practices and environmental management, these certification schemes often lack transparency and accountability, resulting in a superficial box-ticking exercise that fails to tackle the root causes of exploitation or environmental harm.
Closing the Loop: Addressing Manufacturing and End-of-Life Environmental Challenges
As the shoe industry navigates global manufacturing complexities and consumer demand, the environmental and ethical implications of these processes have become increasingly prevalent. Addressing these challenges requires a unified effort from corporations, governments, and international bodies to enforce fair labour practices, ensuring economic benefits do not come at workers’ expense.
Recent studies, including one by MIT, have highlighted the extensive carbon footprint of shoe manufacturing, equating the production of one pair of running shoes to running a 100-watt light bulb continuously for a week. Notably, Over two-thirds of these emissions originate from the manufacturing process, with even minor components like the upper part of the shoe contributing disproportionately to its overall emissions. To mitigate these impacts, the industry can adopt innovative strategies like material substitution and enhanced manufacturing efficiency. For example, using materials with lower carbon footprints or improving energy efficiency in factories can significantly reduce emissions. However, these changes require a shift in corporate practices and consumer expectations, with a focus on sustainability alongside style and functionality.
Dolce & Gabbana’s captivating boots: An impulse buy reflecting fleeting fashion trends. Made from materials that include nylon, plastic, velvet, and leather, these boots represent not only the allure of luxury but also the environmental footprint of high-fashion. Materials like polyurethane and plastic can take over 500 years to decompose, underscoring the pressing need for sustainable practices in the fashion industry. Credit: Student team
However, challenges persist beyond manufacturing and purchasing. Shoe disposal presents significant environmental challenges, with over 300 million pairs discarded annually in the United States. Shoes, composed of various synthetic materials and adhesives, are difficult to recycle. While some brands have initiated recycling programs, most discarded shoes end up in landfills, where they persist for centuries due to the non-biodegradable nature of materials like polyurethane and polyester. Evidently, this not only increases landfill mass but also worsens environmental pollution, highlighting the need for advancements in sustainable materials and recycling technologies suitable for modern footwear.
Moreover, the issue of ‘Greenwashing’ remains a significant concern within the industry. Major footwear brands like Nike and Adidas are accused of misleading consumers about the environmental benefits of their products, with investigations revealing that shoes intended for recycling often end up in second-hand markets rather than being properly processed. This undermines genuine sustainability efforts and breaches consumer trust, highlighting the need for greater transparency and stricter enforcement of labour and environmental standards globally.
Evidently, the footwear industry stands at a critical crossroads, balancing the promotion of economic growth whilst mitigating environmental and social injustices. This necessitates a fundamental shift towards more sustainable production and improved recycling processes. By achieving this, the industry can move towards closing the loop on manufacturing and disposal, creating a more sustainable future that genuinely reflects its ethical claims.
Cover image: Stefan_Alfonso on istock.
Author: Ananya Sreekumar
Author: Catherine Liz Morgan
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